In conjunction with the 1987 Riverina Outlook Conference a questionnaire on pasture establishment techniques was distributed to 800 farmers chosen at random from within a radius of approximately 150 km from Wagga Wagga in southern New South Wales. A response of 275 (34.4%) was received. The survey form is given in Appendix 1.

The following is an outline of the general findings of the survey, together with some brief comments by the authors.

1. Subterranean Clover-Only Pastures

Table I provides the distribution of subclover varieties chosen by farmers sowing subclover alone. The proportion of farmers sowing only subclover was 56% in 1986 and 52% in 1987. It was interesting to note that about 10% of farmers in both years sowed a mixture of varieties.

Table 1. Subterranean clover varieties sown in subclover-only pastures 1986 and 1987

Variety Nungarin Northam Dalkeith Daliak Seaton Park Trikkala Esperence Junee Woogenellup Clare Mt Barker Karridale Larisa **Dwalganup **Yarloop

% of sowings 1986 9.2 1.4 0.1 4.1 21.6 11.9 0.1 5.0 30.3 0.0 10.1 1.4 0.1 2.3 0.1

1987 5.9 1.8 5.9 3.2 18.2 12.7 0.1 12.3 23.6 0.1 6.8 5.5 1.4 1.4 0.1

(numbers rounded off to nearest 0.1)
**not recommended

It is pleasing to observe the rapid adoption of newly released varieties, notably Dalkeith (probably at the expense of Nungarin), Junee (instead of Woogenellup) and Karridale (replacing Mr Barker).

However, incredibly, a small proportion of farmers are persisting with the non-recommended varieties Dwalganup and Yarloop despite their high oestrogen characteristics. More than adequate replacements for these varieties are readily available and these farmers run the risk of devaluing their properties and they also provide a source of oestrogenic contamination to other varieties.

The high proportion of farmers growing subclover only pastures raises the question as to why lucerne is not used more widely as a component of pastures. Whilst some of the soils would be unsuitable for lucerne because of low pH, other farmers are missing out on considerable pasture production, and therefore animal production, as outlined by Muiholland (1987 - this Proceedings).

Table 2. Subterranean clover sowing rates for subclover only pastures, 1986 and 1987.

Sowing rate* (kg/ha)	Proportion used (%)
	1986	1987
1	2.9	3.8
2	19.6	19.2
3	19.6	17.3
4	23.0	25.0
5	14.8	12.5
6	9.1	8.7
7	3.8	4.8
8	5.3	6.7
9	0.1
10	1.4	1.9

*Sowing rates rounded off to nearest whole number

Sowing rates averaged 4.1 kg/ha in 1986 and 4.2 kg/ha in 1987. Most subclover pastures were sown in the range of 2-5 kg/ha (accounting for 77% of sowings in 1986 and 74% of sowings in 1987). These figures are a significant increase on those outlined by Hirth (1987 - this Proceedings) at 3.4 kg/ha for northern Victoria surveyed in 1980. These rates, however, fall far short of the NSW Department of Agriculture recommendations of 10 kg/ha, and indicate that winter pasture production is being foregone due to low subclover densities at this time.

2. Lucerne-Only Pastures

Table 3 shows the range of varieties of lucerne sown in 1986 and 1987

as lucerne-only pastures. The proportion of farmers sowing lucerne-only

pastures was 17.8% in 1986 and 10.9% in 1987.

Table 3. Varieties of lucerne sown in lucerne-only pastures in southern New South Wales, 1986 and 1987.

Variety	Late*** Autumn /Winter growth	Proportion sown (%)
		1986	1987
Nova	5	12	3
WL Southern
Special	5/6	2	6
Baron	6	14	12
WL4SI	6	4
Aurora	6		3
Hunterfield	6	8	27
Trifecta	7	8	6
Matador	8	2
Granada	9	2
Siriver	9	14	9
CUF 101	9	14	12
*WL 318	4/5	4	-
*Springfield	9	4	6
**Condura	5	2	-
**Hunter River	5	8	6
**Falkiner	5	2	3
**Cimarron	4/5	2	-

* recommended varieties but outclassed by better varieties
** varieties not recommended
*** 5, 5/6 semi-dormant; 6, 7 winter active; 8, 9 highly winter active

While no particular trends emerge from the choice of variety it is interesting to note:

(a) the popularity of Hunterfield in 1987;

(b) the reasonable popularity of Baron, Siriver and CUF 101 in both years surveyed;

(c) the continued use of outclassed and non-recommended varieties.

It would appear thatmanyfarmers still feel a strong affiliation for Hunter River lucerne and are more inclined to choose varieties derived from that variety. Consequently Hunterfield, Siriver and Hunter River together comprised 30% of 1986 sowings and 42% of 1987 sowings.

Table 4. Sowing rates used for lucerne-only pastures in southern New South Wales, 1986 and 1987.

Sowing rate (kg/ha)	Proportion of sowings (%)
	1986	1987
1	5.6	3.4
2	7.4	13.8
3	14.8	31.0
4	18.5	13.8
5	14.8	10.3
6	18.5	10.3
7	5.6	10.3
8	5.6	6.9
9	-	-
10	3.7	-
11	1.9	-
12	3.7	-

The average sowing rates for lucerne-only pastures as 5.1 kg/ha in 1986 and 4.2 kg/ha in 1987. However, the high sowing rates infer that many of these pastures are irrigated. The majority of lucerne pastures are sown at the rate of 3-6 kg/ha (67% of sowings in 1986and 65% in 1987).

3. Lucerne/Subterranean Clover Pastures

The distribution of varieties of subterranean clover used in lucerne/ subclover mixtures is given in Table 5. Lucerne varieties are given in Table 6 and sowing rates for each species given in Table 7.

Table 5. The frequency of choice of subterranean clover~ varieties used in lucerne/subclover pastures in southern New South Wales, 1986 and 1987.

Variety	Proportion of sowings (%)
	1986	1987
Nungarin	4.8	5.9
Dalkeith		2.9
Daliak	7.1	- 5.9
Seaton Park	26.2	20.6
Trikkala	4.8	14.7
Junee	23.8	35.3
Woogenellup	28.6	8.8
Mt Barker	2.4
Karridale	2.4	5.9

In comparison with Table I of subclover varieties in subclover-only pastures the range of varieties is reduced in the lucerne/subclover mix with the variety Junee being dominant, particularly in 1987.

Table 6. Frequency of choice of lucerne varieties used in lucerne/subclover pastures in southern New South Wales, 1986 and 1987.

Variety	Late*** autumn/ winter growth	Proportion of sowings (%)
		1986	1987
Dekalb 167	5	3.2	3.7
Nova	5		14.8
Baron	6	3.2
WL 451	6	3.2	3.7
Hunterfield	6	29.0	7.4
Maxidor II	9	3.2	3.7
Granada	9		3.7
Siriver	9	19.4	25.9
CUF 101	9	19.4	25.9
*~318	4/5	3.2
**Condura	5	3.2
**Hunter River	5	6.5	11.1
**Falkiner	5	6.5

* recommended variety but outclassed by better varieties

** varieties not recommended

*** 5 semi-dormant; 6,7 winter active; 8,9 highly winter active

No particular trends are evident although a higher proportion of sowings are of the highly winter-active type perhaps indicating the greater importance of grazing of the lucerne/subclover mix relative to lucerne- only pastures which could be for fodder conservation over a longer time period.

Table 7. Sowing rates of lucerne and subterranean clover when used in lucerne/subclover pastures in southern New South Wales, 1986 and 1987

Species		Proportion used (%)
		Sowing rates (kg/ha)*
		1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
Subclover	1986	14.3	33.3	23.8	19.0	2.4	7.1	-	-
	1987	14.7	44.1	11.8	20.6	2.9	2.9	-	2.9
Lucerne	1986	21.9	21.9	34.4	15.6	-	6.3	-	-
	1987	25.9	33.3	29.6	3.7	3.7	3.7	-	-

*Sowing rates rounded off to nearest whole number

Subterranean clover sowing rates were generally in the 1-4 kg/ha range, being slightly lower on average (2.8 kg/ha in 1986 and 1987) than subclover rates when sown alone. They are significantly below the S kg/ha rate recommended for these pastures.

Lucerne sowing rates, however, were approximately those recommended for the region for lucerne/subclover pastures, being 2.7 kg/ha in 1986 and 2.4 kg/ha in 1987.

4. Mixed Pastures

Several respondents listed mixed pastures other than lucerne/subclover. These mostly contained pasture grasses and occasionally other legumes. There were 11.6% of respondents in that category in 1986 and 13.8% in 1987.

5. Cover Crops

It is clear from the survey that cover crops are extensively used in the establishment of pastures in the region (Table 8). Over 90% of farmers surveyed use cover crops and 62% use them on all pastures sown.

Table 8. Evaluation of the use of cover crops in the establishment of pastures in southern New South Wales, 1986 and 1987.

	Parameter	Proportion used (%)
A.	Cover crop usage	90.5
	all pastures	61.8
	most pastures	17.5
	some pastures	10.9
B.	Species of cover crop
	wheat	29.2
	oats	34.6
	barley	26.1
	triticale	8.0
	others	2. 1
C.	Cover crop sowing rates
	0 - 15 kg/ha	12.6
	15 - 25 kg/ha	13.3
	25 - 35 kg/ha	19.2
	> 35 kg/ha	54.8

While it is generally argued that cover crops reduce the rate and extent of pasture establishment, the severity of the effect is determined by the choice of species of cover crop and its sowing rate. It is surprising therefore that farmers persist in using “smother” crops such as oats and wheat in preference to barley. It is also surprising that 55% of farmers use commercial crop sowing rates (greater than 35 kg/ha) clearly indicating that their priority is a commercial wheat crop rather than pasture establishment. The effect of crop sowing rate on pasture establishment is demonstrated by Cregan (1987 - this Proceedings).

It should be noted that seed production of subterranean clover is reduced by shading. Heavy vegetative crops therefore reduce seed production and hence the subclover plant density in the following autumn and winter. As previously described winter herbage production is lowered substantially.

6. Sowing Date

Table 9 indicates the range of sowing dates chosen by farmers for each pasture type.

Table 9. The date of sowing of subterranean clover, lucerne, lucerne/ subterranean clover, and mixed pastures in southern New South Wales, 1986 and 1987.

Date of Sowing	Proportion of pastures sown (%)
	Subclover only	Lucerne only	lucerne/ subclover	Mixed pasture
1986
before April early April late April early May late May early June late June July August September October	10.6 19.6 35.8 26.3 6.1 1.7 - - - -	4.4 15.6 11.1 2.2 4.4 2.2 33.3 17.8 8.9	1.5 19.1 32.4 36.8 5.9 1.5 2.2 2.9 - -	0.1 8.6 17.1 35.7 15.7 5.7 5.7 2.9 7.1 -
1987
before April early April late April early May late May e early June late June July August September October	6.4 15.4 42.3 16.9 10.3 0.1 - - - -	6.5 22.6 35.5 6.5 3.2 9.7 12.9 9.7 -	3.3 6.7 28.3 41.7 13.3 3.3 1.7 - 1.7 -	6.7 8.3 3.3 28.3 31.7 11.7 6.7 1.7 - 1.7 -

The main pasture sowing times are geared to ideal sowing times for the cover crop rather than for the pasture species being sown. Pasture species should be sown as early as conditions allow in the autumn to enable rapid establishment and early nitrogen fixation by legumes. Very late sowings of subterranean clover result in generally poor growth and seed set.

Some lucerne growers avoid the autumn sowing period because of weed competition and opt for late winter-early spring sowings. However, unless irrigation is available or the soil profile has very good water storage to depth, the risks of seedling death are high.

7. Soil Testing

A surprising result was the reasonably high proportion of farmers (42.5%) who had had soil tests done on their property. However, it is also clear that only about half of these undertook soil testing on a regular basis.

Table 10. The proportion of farmers in southern New South Wales who have had soils tested.

Frequency of testing	Proportion of farmers (%)
only once	10.9
every two years	5.5
every five years	16.7
other	10.2
TOTAL	42.5

Farmers should consider very seriously the value of soil testing on a regular basis as it allows decisions on fertiliser use to be made on background data rather than on a “gut feeling” basis. -

8. Fertiliser Used

Evaluation of fertiliser types used for pasture establishment reveal the popularity of single superphosphate (28.3%) followed by Starter 12 (22.4%), double superphosphate (18.7%) and DAP (18.7%). What is evident is the use of nitrogen (in 45% of responses) which may have a negative effect on root nodulation of the legumes and hence nitrogen fixation. Only about 30% of farmers used fertilisers with a high level of sulphur (i.e. single superphosphate and Starter 15) which is essential for productivity of legumes.

Table 11. The range of fertilisers used on establishing pastures in southern New South Wales.

Fertiliser type	Constituents			Proportion of farmers
	N(%)	P(%)	S(%)	(%)
Single super phosphate	0	8.6	12	28.3
SF super )			25	<0.1
)			45
Double super-
phosphate	0	16.2	5	18.7
Starter 12	12	22	3	22.4
Starter 15	15	13	10	2.4
MAP	12	23	0	1.9
DAP	18	20	0	18.7
Lime: Super				4.8
Lime				0.1
Other				2.1

Only 30.9% of respondents had used molybdenum on pastures suggesting that some pastures in the region may have substandard nitrogen fixing levels, particularly where soils have acidified.

Whilst not documented here, the rates of fertiliser used by farmers were generally higher where soil tests had been carried out on the property. This suggests that fertliser rates generally are lower than they should be.

9. Seed Treatment

Nearly 40% of farmers did not treat their legume seed with inoculant prior to sowing. Farmers who did inoculate were also likely to lime pellet the seed, particularly where lucerne was sown.

Table 12. The treatment of legume seed prior to sowing in southern New South Wales.

Treatment	Proportion of farmers (%)
No seed inoculation	39.3
Inoculation - subclover	44.0
- lucerne	42.5
- other legumes	3.6
Lime pelleting	38.2

The rationale behind not inoculating appears to be that a history of subterranean clover pasture in a particular paddock will provide enough inoculum for reinfestation of legume roots. While this may be true in many cases, the cost of the inoculum is negligible and inoculation provides some insurance in cases where Rhizobium populations are low due to soil pH or some other cause. Research continues to provide new improved strains of Rhizobium which should be introduced.

Difficulties have been experienced by some farmers with lime pelleting where lime has clogged the sowing apparatus. This suggests that too much lime has been used, resulting in the excess sloughing off and settling to the bottom of the seedbox by vibration. Only a thin coating of lime is required to achieve the benefits of the practice.

10. Red-legged Earthmite Control

RLEM was identified as one of the major problems of establishing pastures.

Table 13. Proportion of farmers using treatment for RLEM control in establishing pastures.

Treatment	Proportion of farmers (%)
No. farmers using
treatment	78.9
- seed treatment	13.1
- post-emergent spray	72.0

It is clear from Table 13 that most farmers prefer a post-emergent spray as this is less likely to interfere with any seed inoculation treatment. In some cases both seed treatment and post-emergent sprays have been sued.

It is worth noting that seedlings are much more susceptible to RLEM damage when small. Sowing early would render the plants more able to tolerate an outbreak due to their larger size at the onset of the frost period when RLEM proliferate.

11. Herbicide Usage

The proportion of respondents using herbicides in pasture establishment was 60.3%. Some 16% used knockdown herbicides prior to sowing and 33.8% used residual herbicides pre-planting. Post-planting herbicides were used by 44.7% of respondents.

Table 14. The herbicide use pattern by farmers in pasture establishment in southern New South Wales.

Time of Application	Herbicide	Proportion using herbicide (%)
Pre-planting
- knockdown	Roundup,
	Spray.Seed	16.0
- residual	trifluralin	63.8
	Avadex BW	21.6
	Yield	11.2
	Stampede	1.7
	Glean	1.7
Post-planting	Hoegrass	47.2
	Fusilade	1.1
	diuron	7.4
	MCPA	16.-S
	2,4-DB	3.4
	2,4-D	2.3
	Igran	6.8
	bromoxynil	10.8
	dicamba	1.7
	Afalon	0.1
	Gramoxone	1.1
	Spray.Seed	0.1
	Roundup	0.1

The extensive use of trifluralin and to a lesser extent Avadex BW explains the low percentage of pasture direc~t drilled (Table 15) due to the need for soil incorporation of these herbicides. It is suggested that their use, plus that of Hoegrass, is more likely to be for cover crop weed control than for pasture weed control per se.

The use of Glean and dicamba are of some concern as they are likely to decimate the pasture legume seedlings. It is presumed that the 2,4-D used was at light rates for spray-grazing and that Gramoxone, Spray.Seed and Roundup were used at low rates for pasture topping.

12. Direct Drilling

The data show that direct drilling of pastures is now practised by a significant proportion of farmers. More than 22% direct drilled at least some pastures and nearly 7% direct drilled all pastures. The survey did not canvass the proportion of farmers sowing pastures under reduced tillage but the large number of users of soil-incorporated herbicides suggest that this would be only a minor proportion of the 71% who did not direct drill any pastures.

Table 15. The extent of direct drilling of pastures in southern New South Wales

Proportion Direct Drilled	Proportion of farmers (%)
all pastures	6.9
>75%	1.5
50-75%	2.9
25-50%	4.4
<25%	6.5
no pastures	70.9

13. Depth of Sowing

Because most pasture seed is dropped onto the soil surface and covered with trailing harrows, surface sowing or 0-1 cm depth were the categorie~ nominated by 54% of the respondents.

Table 16. The sowing depth used in pasture establishment in southern New South Wales.

Depth of sowing	(cm) Proportion of farmers (%)
sur face	21.0
0-1	33.2
1-2	26.4
2-4	13.2
unknown	6. 1

Farmers who sow at 2-4 cm depths run the risk of poor emergence from sowing too deep. This applies particularly to soils which have a tendency to crust at th~ surface. The time taken for seedlings to reach the surface after sowing allows time for crust formation and energy reserves of seedlings are insufficient to push through the crust.

14. Machinery for Pasture Sowings

Most of the pasture seed sown is by a conventional combine usually with a small seedbox attached. Depth control therefore becomes difficult although several farmers indicated the use of levelling bars in behind the cultivating tynes in order to give a more even surface.

Table 17. The machinery used by farmers in southern New South Wales for pasture establishment

Machinery	Proportion of farmers (%)
conventional combine	15.8
conventional combine plus small seedbox	57.7
airseeder	9.1
modified combine	6.7
band seeder	4.4
disc drills, triple discs	3.0
trash seeders	1.0
broadcasters	2.3

The low level of usage of bandseeders explains the variability in sowing depth and the concerns of some farmers in achieving success with pasture establishment.

Only 14.5% of farmers indicated that rollers were used and their use was largely confined to the establishment of lucerne.

Conclusions

From the data provided by the survey, the main points of concern for pasture establishment in southern New South Wales are:

(i) the use of very leafy (e.g. oats) cover crops atveryhigh sowing rates which should be, at most, half the commercial crop sowing rate;

(ii) the later than desirable sowing date for the pasture legumes, thus inhibiting their establishment and development of nitrogen-fixing capacity prior to the cold weather;

(iii) the lack of commitment to inoculation with Rhizobium bacteria on a regular basis;

(iv) the use of nitrogen fertilisers at sowing to encourage leafy competition from the cover crop and inhibit nitrogen fixation capacity of the pasture legumes;

(v) the low sowing rates of subterranean clover which inhibits the production of winter feed (through low density) and limits seed set;

(vi) the lack of commitment, on a regular basis, to soil testing services to enable more informed estimates of fertiliser requirements. Current fertiliser rates appear low;

(vii) the lack of band seeders and other specialised pasture sowing equipment which would improve the depth of sowing and the consistency of depth, resulting in much higher establishment rates.

Appendix 1

PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT QUESTIONNAIRE

Instructions - Please tick the box for your chosen answer and add comments where appropriate.

1. SPECIES SOWN

Species	1986 Variety(s)	Sowing Rate	1987 Variety(s)	Sowing Rate
1. subclover only lucerne only lucerne/subclover mix other species (please specify)

2. COVER CROPS

Do you sow your pastures under a cover crop? YES / NO

If your answer is yes, please tick the most appropriate answers below.

All Pastures / Most Pastures / Some Pastures

The cover crops used are: Wheat / Oats / Barley / Other (please specify)

The sowing rate (lb/acre or kg/ha) of the cover crop is: 15 - 25 / 25 - 35 / greater than 35

3. SOWING DATE

Please indicate the sowing date for all pasture paddocks sown in 1986 and 1987. Indicate the pasture species and approximate area sown for each date.

1986 Time	Species	Area	1987 Time	Species	Area
Early April			early April
Late April			late April
Early May			early May
Late May			late May
Early June			early June
Late June			late June
Later (please specify)			later (please specify)

4. FERTILISER USE

Do you have a recent soil test for your pasture paddocks? YES / NO

If your answer is yes, indicate how frequently these tests are done.

Only once / every 2 years / every 5 years / other (please specify)

Indicate in the following table the types and rates of fertiliser used in establishing your pastures.

Fertiliser Type	Rate of Application (lb/acre or kg/ha)
Single Super
Sulphur-Fortified Super
Double Super
Starter 12
DAP
Other - please specify

Was molybdenum used? YES / NO

5. SEED TREATMENT

Do you inoculate your seed?

	YES / NO
subclover
lucerne
Other species
Do you lime-pellet your seed?

6. PEST AND WEED CONTROL

Did you try to control red-legged earthmite in 1996 - or 1987? YES / NO

Did you use: seed treatment / post-emergent spray

Did You use a herbicide before sowing YES / NO

What chemical(s) did you use?

Did you use a herbicide after sowing? YES / NO

What chemical(s) did you use?

7. SOWING DEPTH

Please indicate the depth of sowing achieved for the pasture species.

surface / 0 - 1 cm / 1 - 2 cm / 2 - 4 cm

8. MACHINERY

Please indicate the approximate proportion of pasture direct drilled.

Nil Less than 25% / 25 - 50% / 50 - 75% / greater than 75% / all

To sow your pastures indicate which implement you use:

1. conventional combine

2. conventional combine with small seedbox

3. airseeder

4. combine with modification

5. bandseeder

Other (please specify):

Did you use a roller? YES/NO

Could you please indicate your Postcode:

9. OTHER COMMENTS

We would be interested in any comments you would like to make about pasture establishment and its problems.